D. W. Griffith / 1910s-1920s
Griffith's career also exposed the economic limits of auteur control during the silent era. He left Biograph after the company resisted his ambitions for longer, more expensive productions and objected to his cost overruns, then moved through Mutual, Reliance-Majestic, Triangle, Artcraft, First National, and eventually United Artists. In 1919 he helped found United Artists with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks so that major creative figures could make films on terms less dependent on the commercial studios. Yet Griffith's own production habits repeatedly undermined that independence. His expensive spectacles could require elaborate sets, location work, casts, publicity campaigns, and touring road shows, while their financial returns were unpredictable. After several later films failed to match the success of The Birth of a Nation, the box-office failure of Isn't Life Wonderful in 1924 forced him to leave United Artists. He continued working into the sound era, but Lady of the Pavements, Abraham Lincoln, and The Struggle failed commercially; after The Struggle in 1931, he never directed another film.
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